Class 12 History Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
Chapter Overview
Chapter Title: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
Book: Themes in Indian History – Part I
Subject: CBSE Class 12 History
Chapter Focus:
This chapter explores the rise and expansion of the Vijayanagara Empire, its capital city, and its political, economic, and cultural significance in South Indian history. The chapter examines how Vijayanagara became one of the most prosperous and influential empires in medieval India, focusing on its administration, architecture, trade, and interactions with other contemporary empires.
About the Chapter: Understanding Vijayanagara as an Imperial Capital
This chapter examines the history of the Vijayanagara Empire, which flourished between the 14th and 17th centuries in South India. At the heart of this empire was the capital city of Vijayanagara, a bustling metropolis that became one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the world at its peak. The empire was founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336 CE and reached its zenith under the leadership of rulers like Krishnadevaraya.
Vijayanagara’s strategic location, robust administration, and military prowess allowed it to survive for centuries and dominate much of South India. The capital city itself was a marvel of urban planning and architecture, with grand temples, palaces, and markets. The chapter explores the political, economic, and social structures that made Vijayanagara a powerful and lasting empire.
Key Themes of the Chapter
1. Foundation and Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire
Establishment of Vijayanagara
The empire was founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336 CE as a response to the declining power of the Hoysala dynasty and the weakening Delhi Sultanate’s influence in the south.
Expansion and Consolidation
The early rulers expanded the empire by conquering neighboring kingdoms and territories, consolidating control over the Deccan Plateau and parts of Tamil Nadu.
Key Rulers and Their Achievements
Kings like Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 CE) are particularly noteworthy for their military conquests, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
2. Vijayanagara as a Capital
Urban Planning and Architecture
The city of Vijayanagara was known for its advanced urban planning, including well-planned streets, irrigation systems, and a complex water management system. The capital housed royal palaces, temples, markets, and diplomatic buildings.
Monumental Architecture
The city’s architecture was marked by grand temples such as the Virupaksha Temple, which symbolized the power of the Vijayanagara rulers. The capital also boasted large reservoirs and defensive walls.
Cultural Renaissance
The Vijayanagara Empire became a hub for cultural and intellectual pursuits, fostering literature, music, art, and religious expression. The court of Krishnadevaraya was particularly known for its support of Sanskrit literature and the arts.
3. Political Structure and Administration
Centralized Administration
The empire had a well-organized bureaucratic structure, with a centralized system under the king, supported by a council of ministers. The empire was divided into provinces called Nadu or Rajya, each administered by a governor.
Military Organization
The empire’s military prowess was central to its success. The Vijayanagara army included infantry, cavalry, and war elephants, and it maintained fortified cities and fortresses.
Diplomatic Relations
The rulers of Vijayanagara maintained diplomatic relations with various contemporary powers, including the Sultanates of the Deccan, the Bahmani Sultanate, and European trading powers like the Portuguese.
4. Economic Prosperity and Trade
Agriculture and Revenue
The economy was primarily agrarian, with a strong emphasis on irrigation and land cultivation. The empire benefited from its extensive network of reservoirs and canals.
Trade and Commerce
Vijayanagara was a key player in the regional and global trade networks. The empire was known for its export of textiles, spices, and precious stones, and it had active trade relations with the Arabian Peninsula, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
Role of Markets
The capital city itself had bustling markets that catered to both local and international traders, highlighting the prosperity of the empire.
5. Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire
Battle of Talikota (1565 CE)
The turning point in the history of the empire came with the Battle of Talikota, where the Vijayanagara forces were decisively defeated by a coalition of the Deccan Sultanates. The loss resulted in the sacking of the capital city.
Reasons for Decline
The decline of the empire was due to internal strife, ineffective leadership after the death of Krishnadevaraya, and external threats from the Sultanates and the Portuguese.
Impact of Decline
Despite the fall of the empire, Vijayanagara’s cultural and architectural legacy continued to influence the region for centuries.
Major Features of the Period
Sources and Interpretation
Travel Accounts
Accounts from foreign travelers, such as Domingo Paes and Fernão Nunes, provide important insights into the grandeur of the city and the prosperity of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Archaeological Evidence
Excavations of the ruins of Vijayanagara, particularly around Hampi, offer valuable information on the city’s architecture, planning, and daily life. Many temples, palaces, and fortifications are still standing, providing a glimpse into the empire’s grandeur.
Inscriptions
Inscriptions from the period, particularly those found in temples and on pillars, shed light on the administrative structure, economic activities, and religious life during the empire’s peak.
Foundation and Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire
Harihara and Bukka
These brothers founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE, establishing a powerful dynasty that would last for nearly three centuries.
Consolidation of Power
The empire expanded through military campaigns against the Muslim Sultanates in the Deccan and southern kingdoms. The success of the empire was due to its strategic location, which allowed control over trade routes and agricultural lands.
Krishnadevaraya
One of the most famous rulers of the empire, Krishnadevaraya, expanded the kingdom’s borders, strengthened the military, and was a great patron of the arts and literature.
Vijayanagara as a Capital
Grand Architecture
The capital city was built with an intricate design, featuring expansive temples like the Virupaksha Temple, large palace complexes, and public buildings. These structures reflected both religious devotion and political power.
Cultural and Religious Center
Vijayanagara became a center for both Hinduism and the arts, particularly during the reign of Krishnadevaraya. The city attracted poets, artists, and scholars, making it a hub for cultural activities.
Political Structure and Administration
Centralized Bureaucracy
The empire was ruled by a king, supported by a council of ministers. The king was considered both a political and divine figure. His administration included various departments, such as military, revenue, and public works.
Military Strategy
The empire’s military strength was crucial in maintaining control over its vast territory. The Vijayanagara army, which included a large cavalry and war elephants, was organized and well-equipped to defend the empire from external invasions.
Economic Prosperity and Trade
Agriculture
The Vijayanagara Empire had an efficient agrarian system, supported by an elaborate irrigation system. The use of tanks, canals, and wells helped maximize agricultural productivity.
Trade Networks
Vijayanagara had active trade relations with Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. The empire’s economy flourished due to the demand for its textiles, spices, and gems.
Marketplaces
The capital city itself was home to vibrant markets, which attracted merchants from far and wide, making it one of the most important commercial centers of the time.
Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire
Battle of Talikota
The empire suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Deccan Sultanates in 1565, which led to the sacking and abandonment of Vijayanagara.
Internal Struggles
After the death of Krishnadevaraya, the empire faced internal divisions, weak leadership, and power struggles among the ruling elite, which contributed to its eventual decline.
Key Historians & Contributions
K.K. Aziz
His work on the history of the Vijayanagara Empire and its decline focuses on the political and military dynamics that shaped the empire.
M.A. Sherring
Sherring’s studies on the archaeological remains of Vijayanagara provide important insights into the city’s architecture and urban planning.
Robert Sewell
His historical writings offer detailed accounts of the administrative structure, culture, and economy of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Important Terminology
Krishnadevaraya
A significant ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire, known for his military achievements and patronage of the arts.
Virupaksha Temple
One of the most prominent temples in Vijayanagara, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
Talikota
The site of the Battle of Talikota, which led to the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Hampi
The modern-day ruins of the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Debates and Interpretations
Centralized vs. Decentralized Power
Was the Vijayanagara Empire truly centralized, or were the provincial rulers given too much autonomy, leading to internal instability?
Cultural Syncretism
How did the Vijayanagara Empire balance Hindu traditions with the growing influence of Islamic rule in the Deccan? Did the empire embrace or resist Islamic culture and influence?
Why This Chapter Matters
Legacy of Vijayanagara
Understanding the Vijayanagara Empire helps in appreciating its cultural, architectural, and economic contributions to South Indian history.
Urban and Administrative Excellence
The chapter showcases the sophistication of Vijayanagara’s urban planning, architecture, and administrative systems.
Impact on South Indian History
The Vijayanagara Empire played a key role in shaping the political and social dynamics of South India, influencing the region’s subsequent history.
Ideal For
- CBSE Class 12 Board Exams: Source-based questions, map work, and essay writing on the history and significance of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- CUET Humanities Section: Fact-based MCQs on the rise, administration, and decline of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- UPSC Prelims & Mains: History of medieval India and the role of the Vijayanagara Empire in shaping South Indian politics and culture.
- History Enthusiasts: Interested in exploring the history, culture, and legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire.
NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
1. What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
The study of Hampi’s ruins began with Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian, in 1800. He was the first to document the site through survey maps, drawing from the memories of priests from the Virupaksha temple and the Pampadevi shrine. From 1856 onwards, photographers started recording the monuments, providing valuable visual evidence for scholars. Historians further studied the ruins by consulting inscriptions found in the Virupaksha temple and other local temples, as well as the accounts of foreign travelers. Literature in languages like Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit also contributed to the understanding of the city. These various sources complemented the oral information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple, offering a more comprehensive view of the history of Vijayanagara.
2. How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met? (or) Explain how the people of Vijayanagara obtained water for their needs.
The water requirements of Vijayanagara were primarily met through the natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River, which flowed in the northeastern direction and was surrounded by granite hills. To address the region’s water scarcity, especially in the arid areas of the peninsula, the rulers of Vijayanagara constructed large embankments and reservoirs to store water. The Kamalapuram tank, built in the 15th century, was a significant reservoir used for irrigation and fulfilling the needs of the royal center. Additionally, the Hiriya canal, which drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra River, supported irrigation for nearby fields, ensuring the sustainability of agriculture and meeting the water needs of the urban center.
3. What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city?
Advantages:
- Protection during sieges: Agricultural land within the fortified area was shielded from external attacks during sieges, which were common during medieval times. This ensured that food production remained uninterrupted, even in times of conflict.
- Steady revenue: The state continued to receive land revenue from the protected agricultural tract, which was a crucial source of income for the empire.
- Irrigation and sustainability: The agricultural land benefited from the canal systems drawing water from the Tungabhadra River, ensuring adequate irrigation for crops.
Disadvantages:
- High costs: The construction and maintenance of fortifications around agricultural land were expensive and required significant resources.
- Increased military needs: A larger fortified area required a more substantial military presence to protect both the urban and agricultural areas.
- Uncertain boundaries: Determining the exact extent of the land to be enclosed within the fortified area could have been challenging, potentially causing conflicts over land allocation.
4. What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba?
The Mahanavami Dibba, an important structure in the royal center of Vijayanagara, was associated with significant rituals, especially during the festival of Mahanavami or Navaratri. The festival, celebrated with great pomp and show, lasted for nine days and served to display the king’s power, prestige, and sovereignty. Several rituals took place:
- Worship of deities and the state horse
- Animal sacrifices, including buffaloes
- Dances, wrestling matches, and processions involving horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers
The king also inspected his army and received gifts from the nayakas (military commanders) on the last day of the festival. These rituals not only reinforced the king’s authority but also symbolized the unity of the empire.
5. Fig. 7.33 is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs? What are the animals shown? Why do you think they are depicted? Describe the human figures shown.
The pillar from the Virupaksha temple features floral motifs and various animals like peacocks, horses, and ducks. These animals and birds likely symbolize devotion and were intricately carved on gateways to attract worshippers. The use of animals also served religious purposes, as these creatures were associated with different gods and goddesses, often worshipped in the temple. The human figures depicted include both deities and their worshippers. One figure shows a god adorned with a crown and holding a mace (gadda), likely a representation of a deity known for defeating demons. Another figure shows a devotee near a Shivlinga, though the method of worship depicted is unconventional and not commonly observed.
6. Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.
The term “royal centre” does not fully capture the essence of the area it describes in Vijayanagara. While it includes several grand structures, such as the king’s palace and temples, there is little definitive evidence to confirm the exact role of these buildings as royal residences. The “audience hall” and Mahanavami Dibba, though impressive, do not conclusively prove the area’s function as a royal palace. Moreover, the area also contained over 60 temples, which suggests that it was more than just a royal center. It likely served as both a religious and administrative hub, which makes the term “royal centre” somewhat limited in scope.
7. What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
The architecture of the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables reveals that the rulers of Vijayanagara embraced both Hindu and Islamic architectural elements. They were influenced by Indian traditions but were also open to liberal and innovative designs.
- Lotus Mahal: Built in Indo-Islamic style, the Lotus Mahal is believed to have been used as a council chamber. Its structure combines Muslim-style arches and pillars with traditional Indian roofing, showing the rulers’ fusion of cultural influences.
- Elephant Stables: These stables were designed to house the empire’s large elephant corps, reflecting the military prowess of the Vijayanagara rulers. The use of spacious rooms to accommodate elephants indicates the importance of elephants in the Vijayanagara army.
8. What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions?
The architects of Vijayanagara were influenced by a mix of Hindu, Islamic, and local architectural traditions. The main architectural features include grand gopurams (gateway towers), royal gateways, mandapas (pavilions), and pillared corridors. While traditional Hindu temple architecture influenced the designs, Vijayanagara architects introduced new elements such as the chariot streets—stone-paved roads lined with pillared pavilions where merchants set up their shops. The rulers also constructed vast temple complexes like the Virupaksha and Vitthala Temples, incorporating intricately carved pillars and grand halls to demonstrate both religious devotion and royal authority.
9. What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull from the various descriptions in the chapter?
Ordinary people in Vijayanagara, though not part of the power structure, played essential roles in the functioning of the empire. They were small traders, artisans, peasants, and workers. Local communities of merchants, such as the kudirai chettis (horse merchants), were integral to the city’s economy. Peasants, weavers, and craftsmen, including ironsmiths and goldsmiths, formed the backbone of urban and rural life. These people lived in cities, towns, and villages, and their lives were often centered around temples, where they worked and worshipped. Caste-based divisions existed, and lower-caste people often faced social discrimination, though some were influenced by the Bhakti movement, which sought to diminish caste distinctions.
10. On an outline map of the world, mark approximately Italy, Portugal, Iran, and Russia.
Note: This would be a visual exercise. The outline map would show:
- Italy in Southern Europe, bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
- Portugal in Western Europe, bordering the Atlantic Ocean.
- Iran in Western Asia, bordering the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea.
- Russia spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, bordering both the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.
These locations are significant because they represent the regions from which travelers, such as Portuguese and Italian explorers, crossed seas and land routes to reach India, including Vijayanagara.