Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies

NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?

Answer: Excavations in Early Historic cities have been limited due to the continued habitation of these sites, unlike the extensive excavations at Harappan cities. However, several craft-related artifacts have been found in these towns, which highlight the skills and craftsmanship of the period. Key evidence includes:

• Northern Black Polished Ware: Fine, glossy pottery bowls and dishes, which were likely used by the elite.
• Crafted Objects: Items such as tools, ornaments, figurines, and vessels made from materials like gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta.
• Guilds: The presence of professional groups like weavers, carpenters, goldsmiths, and ironworkers, indicating organized craft production.

This differs from Harappan cities, where there is no evidence of iron usage, and craft production was mainly associated with beads and seals. Moreover, the Harappans did not have the same extensive guild systems, which were seen in the Early Historic period.

2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.

Answer: The mahajanapadas were ancient Indian kingdoms with several key features:

• Prominent Mahajanapadas: Major states included Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti.
• Monarchical and Oligarchic Rule: While most were ruled by kings, some, like the Vajji sangha, were oligarchies where power was shared among several leaders, known as rajas.
• Fortified Capitals: Each mahajanapada had a fortified capital city.
• Brahmanical Influence: Brahmanas composed Dharmasutras, which outlined the roles of rulers and other social categories. Rulers were typically Kshatriyas and were expected to collect taxes from cultivators, traders, and artisans.
• Military Raids: Raids on neighboring states for wealth acquisition were often sanctioned.
• Standing Armies: Some states developed professional armies, while others continued to rely on militias.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Answer: Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people using various sources, as these individuals did not leave direct records. The primary sources include:

• Archaeological Remains: The remains of houses, pottery, and tools provide insights into daily life.
• Inscriptions and Scriptures: Texts often mention the relationships between rulers and their subjects, including taxes and conditions of life.
• Craft Tools: Changes in tools used by farmers and craftsmen help historians understand the evolution of labor and lifestyle.
• Folk Literature: Folk stories and traditions offer indirect clues about the customs and practices of ordinary people during ancient times.

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities and differences?

Answer: The gifts given to the Pandyan chief included valuable items such as ivory, fragrant woods, honey, sandalwood, pepper, flowers, and various birds and animals. In contrast, the items produced in Danguna were more utilitarian, including grass, animal skins, flower salt, and minerals.

The common item in both lists is flower, though the context and quality of the items differ significantly. The gifts to the Pandyan chief were luxury items, while those produced in Danguna were more basic, reflecting a contrast between elite and common production.

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.

Answer: Epigraphists face several challenges while deciphering inscriptions, including:

• Faint Engravings: Inscriptions may be poorly preserved, with faint or worn-out letters, making reconstruction difficult.
• Damage: Inscriptions may be damaged or incomplete, with missing parts of the text.
• Uncertain Meaning: Words may be specific to certain regions or periods, complicating interpretation.
• Deciphering Limitations: While thousands of inscriptions have been discovered, not all have been translated or published.
• Survival of Inscriptions: Many inscriptions have not survived due to natural decay, making the available material only a fraction of what originally existed.
• Incompleteness: Many inscriptions focus on political and economic matters, neglecting daily life and agriculture, leaving gaps in understanding.

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?

Answer: Mauryan administration had several key features:

• Political Centres: The empire had five major political centres: the capital Pataliputra and provincial capitals like Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvamagiri.
• Communication: Both land and river routes were crucial for the empire’s communication system, ensuring smooth interaction between regions.
• Army and Military Coordination: The Mauryas maintained a large army with specialized committees for managing the navy, transport, foot soldiers, horses, chariots, and elephants.

Asokan Inscriptions: The Asokan inscriptions mention the major political centres and the coordination of the empire’s military forces. They also highlight the moral and administrative responsibilities of rulers, as well as public welfare activities.

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.

Answer: D.C. Sircar’s statement underscores the comprehensive role of inscriptions in providing a detailed record of life and culture in ancient India. Key aspects covered in inscriptions include:

• State Boundaries: Inscriptions were often carved along the borders of kingdoms, helping to determine territorial boundaries and expansions.
• Names of Kings: Kings’ names and titles, including Asoka’s, are preserved in inscriptions.
• Historical Events: Major events like the Kalinga War are mentioned in inscriptions, as are the king’s personal reflections and conversions.
• Administration: Inscriptions provide detailed information about governance, including the appointment of viceroys and the management of royal land and taxes.
• Land Grants and Taxes: Inscriptions document land grants and the imposition of taxes, highlighting economic practices.

Inscriptions thus serve as a rich source, reflecting nearly every aspect of ancient Indian life, from governance and military affairs to daily customs.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.

Answer: In the post-Mauryan period, the concept of kingship evolved, particularly through the idea of divine authority. Monarchs began to justify their rule through divine sanction. Key developments include:

• Kushan Kings: The Kushan rulers, like those of the Gupta dynasty, proclaimed divine status, calling themselves Devputra (son of a god) and constructing statues of themselves in temples.
• Gupta Kings: During the Gupta period, kingship was intertwined with the idea of divine sanction, but power was often shared with local rulers (Samantas), who sometimes grew strong enough to challenge the king’s authority.
• Literature and Inscriptions: Literature, coins, and inscriptions were used to describe and legitimize royal power. For example, the poet Harisena praised Samudragupta, providing insight into the politics of the Gupta period.

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?

Answer: Agricultural practices underwent significant transformation, primarily in response to increased tax demands. To increase productivity and meet these demands, several new techniques and tools were introduced:

• Ploughs: The introduction of the plough, particularly in the fertile regions of the Ganga and Cauvery basins, significantly boosted rice production.
• Spades: In areas with tougher terrain, spades became essential for tilling the soil, enhancing agricultural output.
• Irrigation: Farmers began constructing wells, ponds, and canals for artificial irrigation, which allowed them to control water supply and increase production, especially in regions with irregular rainfall.

Social Implications: These technological advancements led to the creation of a new social stratum, with land ownership becoming an important factor in social and economic status. Literature from this time describes the roles of both large and small farmers (Grihpatis) and highlights the growing importance of land ownership in society.