Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.

Answer: Patriliny refers to tracing descent through the father’s lineage, which was crucial for elite families for several reasons:

• Continuity of Dynasty: According to Dharmashastras, it was believed that a son was essential for carrying forward the family legacy. This notion was deeply rooted in religious and cultural beliefs, emphasizing the importance of sons over daughters. This principle is reflected in Rigveda, where a father wishes for his daughter to have sons to continue the family lineage.
• Inheritance: In royal families, the throne was often inherited by the king’s son. Similarly, property was traditionally divided among sons after the parents’ death, ensuring continuity. In cases where a king had no son, the throne could be claimed by his brother, and at times, women like Prabhavati Gupta ascended the throne, challenging the norms.

Thus, patriliny ensured the perpetuation of power and inheritance within elite families, making it central to their social and political stability.

2. Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.

Answer: While the Dharmashastras prescribed that only Kshatriyas could be kings, early Indian history reveals that not all rulers strictly adhered to this norm. Several ruling lineages had non-Kshatriya origins:

• The Mauryas were considered Kshatriyas by Buddhist texts, but some Brahmanical texts referred to them as having a “low” origin.
• The Shungas and Kanvas, who ruled after the Mauryas, were Brahmanas by birth.
• The Shakas, who arrived from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas (barbarians) by Brahmanical texts.
• The Satavahanas claimed to be both Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, with Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani asserting his role as a destroyer of Kshatriya pride.

This shows that political power in early states was often more dependent on support and resources than on rigid caste-based criteria.

3. Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and Matanga.

Answer:

• Drona: A Brahmana by birth, Drona adhered to the Brahmanical norm of imparting education, especially in archery. He refused to teach Ekalavya, a lower-caste boy, though Ekalavya later learned archery on his own. Drona, however, demanded Ekalavya’s right thumb as a “fee,” showcasing a violation of religious norms.
• Hidimba: Hidimba, a rakshasa (demon), defied her kin’s norms. Despite being ordered to capture the Pandavas for consumption, she fell in love with Bhima, breaking the conventional norms of her race. She later bore a son, Ghatotkacha, with Bhima.
• Matanga: Matanga was a Bodhisattva born in a chandala (untouchable) family, yet he surpassed societal expectations by learning the Vedas. However, when his son, Mandavya, refused food to his father, Matanga condemned his actions, teaching him humility.

Each of these figures challenged the norms of their social positions, either through actions or teachings that contradicted the societal expectations of their time.

4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha Sukta?

Answer:

The Brahmanical view of society, derived from the Purusha Sukta, posited that the four varnas (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) emanated from the body of Purusha, reflecting a divinely ordained social order. This rigid division was based on birth and served to justify societal hierarchies.

The Buddhist theory of social contract, as explained in the Sutta Pitaka, argued that originally, human beings and nature existed in a harmonious state. However, as people became greedy and deceitful, they needed a ruler to maintain order. The institution of kingship arose as a social contract, where people agreed to obey the ruler in exchange for protection and justice. This was a more flexible and pragmatic view, recognizing the possibility of change based on human needs, unlike the Brahmanical theory, which justified caste-based roles as divinely ordained.

5. The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger: Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.

Answer: In the Mahabharata, the list is based on multiple criteria, including:

• Age: Elders and those of higher age were placed higher in the list, as age often symbolized wisdom and respect.
• Gender: Men were usually ranked higher, though women like Draupadi were given respect in the context of their kinship roles.
• Kinship ties: Relatives like fathers, brothers, and sons were ranked highly due to the importance of family bonds in early societies.
• Other Criteria: Respect was also given to Brahmanas, Purohits, and Gurus for their religious and spiritual authority. Fraternal ties were valued, and kinsmen of similar age were placed together in the ranking.

This ranking reflects the hierarchical nature of early society, where age, gender, and kinship played significant roles in determining social status.

6. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Wintemitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature…. and contains so many kinds of things….(it) gives us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.

Answer: Maurice Wintemitz’s statement highlights the Mahabharata’s profound role as both a literary and historical source. The epic encompasses various aspects of Indian society, including kinship, politics, social norms, and religious beliefs. The Mahabharata is divided into narrative (storytelling) and didactic (moral prescriptions) sections, providing a rich tapestry of insights into the ancient Indian mindset.

It reflects social values, political dynamics, and even gender norms, offering a deep understanding of the Indian folk’s inner thoughts and struggles. Wintemitz emphasizes that the Mahabharata transcends a single genre, portraying a range of experiences, making it a comprehensive window into Indian culture and its philosophical and moral complexities.

7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.

Answer: The Mahabharata is unlikely to have been written by a single author due to its complex and diverse content. Initially, the epic was likely composed orally by Sutas (charioteer bards), who narrated heroic tales of warriors, particularly during battles. Over time, it was passed down through generations and was adapted to reflect changing social norms and philosophical beliefs.

By the 5th century BCE, Brahmanas began recording the stories in written form. Between 200 BCE and 400 CE, substantial additions were made, including sections resembling the Manusmriti. The Mahabharata thus evolved over centuries, and while it was attributed to Vyasa, it is the result of numerous writers, poets, and philosophers.

8. How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer: Gender differences played a significant role in early societies, influencing social, legal, and economic life:

• Inheritance: According to Manusmriti, inheritance was primarily reserved for sons, while daughters were excluded. Women were allowed to retain gifts received at marriage (stridhana) but could not claim paternal property.
• Patriliny: Sons played an essential role in patrilineal societies, where lineage and inheritance passed through the male line, often excluding women from positions of power or inheritance.
• Social Roles: Women were often expected to follow the norms of marriage and household duties. In contrast, men could hold property and positions of authority, such as kingship.
• Polygyny: Kings and elite families often practiced polygyny, where a man could marry multiple women, reflecting power dynamics and gender-based inequality.

Thus, gender norms were crucial in shaping the social fabric of early Indian societies, often confining women to domestic roles while men enjoyed greater freedom in public and political life.

9. Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed.

Answer: Brahmanical prescriptions, which emphasized patrilineal kinship and exogamous marriage, were not always universally followed, as evidenced by various practices across different regions and cultures:

• Kinship: While Brahmanical texts prescribed specific kinship structures, some societies had a broader understanding of kinship that included cousins and extended family networks as blood relations.
• Marriage: Brahmanical norms for marriage, which emphasized exogamy (marriage outside one’s kin or gotra), were not always followed, especially in royal families where marriages were often within the kula (family) to retain power and property.
• Alternative Practices: Some royal dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, did not always follow the Brahmanical norms regarding marriage and kinship, opting for practices that suited their political and social needs.

These exceptions highlight the diversity of marriage and kinship norms across different social groups, suggesting that Brahmanical prescriptions were not universally enforced.